Latin American Financial Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Latin American Financial Markets - Essay Example This situation reached a crisis in August 1982 when the government of Mexico announced a moratorium on the payment of capital totaling approximately $20 billion dollars scheduled for 1982 and 1983. This resulted in a complete suspension of new loans to indebted nations, placing a heavy burden on those countries in Latin America where almost 50 percent of worldwide debt was concentrated. The closure of international financing sources obliged the debtor nations, including Venezuela, to adopt adjustment policies that had a severe recessionary impact. Against this background, the Venezuelan government and the central bank agreed, in February 1983, on the establishment of a foreign exchange control system based on differential exchange rates. This allowed the granting of foreign exchange for basic imports and debt servicing at a preferential exchange rate, while the other transactions were directed toward the free market where the exchange rate was progressively devalued. The goal of thes e measures was to protect international reserves and to decrease aggregate demand, reduce consumption and investment expenses, while generating exchange savings that would permit servicing the foreign debt. These policies, however, affected the potential earnings and future possible consumption by the population. Therefore, it was necessary to arrive at an agreement with international creditor banks regarding the refinancing of public-sector foreign debt, to achieve an important reduction in the servicing burden. The Venezuelan government began contacts with the banking community in 1983, and in 1986 a restructuring agreement was signed. This had to be modified in 1987 due to the fall of oil prices, but this proved to be only a transitory solution until a new restructuring agreement was designed in 1990 in accordance with the Brady Plan mechanism. In this regard, it should be pointed out that 1988 ended for Venezuela with mounting pressures in the foreign exchange market and an increasingly adverse economic outlook. The presence of negative real interest rates gave rise to the inefficient allocation of resources and an accelerated capital flight. As a result, and in spite of existing exchange controls, net international reserves fell steadily and in amounts that fluctuated between $926 million and $4,900 billion between 1986 and 1988. Additionally, in 1988, the fiscal deficit as a percentage of GNP reached 7.4 percent and the inflation rate surpassed 30 percent, which was the highest level reached in Venezuela until that time. Unfortunately, the inflation rate became even worse in 1989, when it reached 80.1 percent, the highest registered until now. The 1990 Restructuring Agreement For the purpose of guaranteeing the viability of the economic adjustment and reform program adopted in 1989, it was essential to resolve the problem of servicing the public-sector foreign debt. The servicing of such debt on average represented almost 40 percent of the value of oil exports between 1982 and 1988, while the interest payments represented slightly more than 20 percent of the total fiscal expenses between 1987 and

Child Soldiers and Poverty

Child Soldiers and Poverty Child Soldiers in Africa What accounts for the phenomenon of child soldiers in Africa? The primary cause contributing to the recruitment of child soldiers in Africa is poverty. While other factors such as ‘war’ itself, proliferation of small arms, lack of education, displacement all inevitably lead to child soldier recruitment, it is however poverty at the root of these circumstances. Therefore this essay shall argue this case by examining how Africa has come to have such high levels of poverty and by showing the association between other factors and that of poverty. To establish what is meant by the term ‘child soldier’ it must first be defined and a brief description offered that explains the recruitment practices used. This in turn allows the reader to better comprehend the devastating outcomes when underlying causes such as extreme poverty are not addressed. Subsequently this essay examines the factors that account for the phenomenon of child soldiers in Africa and through this examination of causal factors it will become apparent that pov erty is a recurring theme. Once it has been established that poverty is indeed the major cause of child soldier recruitment attention is then given to what is being done to stop it. Finally consideration must be given to the problems that arise when addressing the issues of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of the child soldier back into the community, to avoid a replication of the whole cycle. This focus on stopping child soldier recruitment and difficulties faced after hostilities cease, demonstrate an attempt to eradicate the practice at the causal level and show a commitment to assisting children who have already endured and survived this reprehensible process. A Definition of the ‘Child Soldier’ According to UNICEF: A child soldier is defined as any child boy or girl under 18 years of age, who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity, including, but not limited to: cooks, porters, messengers, and anyone accompanying such groups other than family members. It includes girls and boys recruited for sexual purposes and/or forced marriage. The definition, therefore, does not only refer to a child who is carrying, or has carried weapons (Cape Town Principals, 1997). Recruitment Children are commonly taken from their homes, their schools, orphanages and refugee camps for displaced persons, directly to military camps for training. Many children are abducted by force while military offences are taking place on a child’s village. In contrast others actually volunteer and join the army (both government and rebel) to receive perceived benefits such as protection, food, opportunities to loot and a sense of power with a gun in their hands. The training commences very shortly after the children are abducted and its main focus is to quickly prepare the children to fight a war. Intense psychological pressure is placed on them whereby the links of the children with society are broken and a programming process is commenced to think of war and only war. This in turn is aimed at dehumanising the children and turning them into killing machines. The discipline is extremely hard and if a child is caught trying to escape often the penalty would be death and more than likely this would be carried out by another child soldier as a deterrent to others. It is also not uncommon to order these children to kill their own relatives, neighbors and to attack and steal from their own villages. This is a deliberate ploy by armed groups to destroy any chance of the child being accepted back into their village (Honwana, 2002). The Primary Cause The Children within African countries are generally at a higher risk of poverty, disease, malnutrition, becoming an orphan and have a higher mortality rate than seen in western developed nations. In addition sexual and labor exploitation (slave labor and armed conflict) has increased in the last twenty to thirty years. Africa is experiencing this state of affairs due to the poor state of socio-economic development in Africa and the nature of the development policies that have given rise to it. This terrible situation these children find themselves in is largely due to the failure of both state governments and markets. The developed world needs to redefine poverty reduction strategies urgently to address this situation and this may include more discriminatory aid allocation that includes debt relief, in agreement with the individual governments commitments to reducing poverty. The poverty we refer to above is predominantly of a rural nature as many of Africa’s poorest live in rural areas and thus depend on subsistence farming to provide food and income. Sub-Saharan Africa has the greater amount rural poor who are living in abject poverty and this includes the rural poor people of Eastern and Southern Africa, a region that has one of the world’s highest number of poor people. Rural poverty in many areas of Africa such as the Sub-Saharan region has its roots in the colonial system and the policy and institutional restraints that it imposed on poor people. Recent developments that affected the poor in Africa can also be attributed to the cold war between the east and west. The competition between the two sides resulted in many countries throughout Africa taking sides and either following a socialist model of development or a neo liberalism approach. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the fact that many born in recent generations within Africa have been exposed to the later model, many saw their future based within the context of a ‘free market’ system. This system while showing encouraging signs initially started to show cracks into the 1990’s as it became apparent that an ever widening gap was developing between the south and the north. Many countries now found themselves in more debt from borrowed funds that could not be repaid than they were a decade earlier. In short the policy had basically managed to increase the wealth of developed countries, particularly multinational corporations (MNC’s) and the elitists within either African governments / rebel leaders. In contrast the poorest have received little due to a lack adequate social development policy (Baylis Smith, 1999). In recent decades, economic policies and institutional structures have been modified to close the income gap. Structural adjustments have also dismantled existing rural systems, but have not always built new ones. Furthermore in many transitional economies, the rural situation is now experiencing continuing stagnation, poor production, low incomes and the rising vulnerability of poor people. The reduced access to markets is a problem for many small businesses in Africa. The rural population is poorly structured and is often situated in remote locations that make it difficult for any assistance initiatives to reach. As a result more and more government policies and investments where they exist to address poverty reduction will most likely favor urban over rural areas. Given the above situation child labor is likely to keep increasing in Africa into the future  as the families or possibly just the children are dependant on the income they earn to simply subsist. In addition it has been found that if attempts are made to stop children working, it will only worsen the families or individuals situation unless new forms of income producing activities can be provided as an alternative. While this shift in income producing activities may help alleviate the situations where children are exploited and exposed to hazardous working conditions there still is concern that these children are not receiving an education. As the children are often not attending school they are in effect limiting their future chances of actually improving their situation and are more likely to continue a cycle of poverty through to the next generation (Ronald, Hope Sr. Kempe, 2005). Other Causes An obvious but often overlooked cause is simply ‘war’ itself – for without war there would be no need for child soldiers. Other causes consist of a proliferation of small arms since the end of the cold war, lack of education and displacement. These factors are likely to be present when a child is forcefully recruited by means of abduction which is a common occurrence in poor rural remote parts of Africa. Well known targets for this repulsive behavior are schools, walking home from school, refugee camps and from the home, often during the night. Others motivations that may lead to a child ‘voluntarily’ choosing to become a child soldier often stem from a view that the armed force will provide various opportunities not available at home. Additionally they are seen as providing a sense of adventure, survival in the case of an orphan, revenge against killed family members and escape from an either oppressive or abusive home (Cahn, 2005). These ‘other’ causes do indeed contribute to a child decision to become a child soldier, especially if that recruitment has been forcibly undertaken. The ‘state’ is often virtually non existent due to corruption / conflict and thus not able to provide sensible economic policy that may encourage industry and development or any social safety nets. The result is there are simply insufficient jobs; the only organization is that of the army or rebel group and therefore child soldiers in Africa do not exist for ideological reasons, but rather reasons of survival and escape from abject poverty. The fact that war is one of the main causes of child soldier recruitment seems too obvious and it appears quite strange that many non government organisations, researchers and bodies such as the UN have failed to even recognise it as a major cause in their research / discussions as a trigger for child soldier recruitment This ignorance may account for why many of the current efforts such as the millennium development goals (MDG’s) are failing Africa. Moreover as war is such a massive force of destruction and normality in Africa that sadly many children grow up believing it is a part of everyday life. Just being aware of its presence in your backyard / town generates a continuous need where a child must look out for themself through violence. War will cause the collapse of society including, family structures, closure of schools and other places of learning and lead to high unemployment. All of which indirectly lead children to view involvement in military conflicts as the only choice available to them for survival. The circumstances of education have a very immense impact on young children and through childhood and education children are forming their morals, values and goals for later life. Access to education and the content that is actually taught in schools are of equal importance. The relevance of education to employment, the way in which children are treated in their schools, or the way the school operates as a recruiting place are also important when studying the relationship between education and the recruitment of child soldiers. Likewise, the lack of education is a perilous trap because children will find armed violence as the only possible solution to their unappeasable boredom. Whilst studying the significance of education, the link between education and employment is also very important. In many of Africa’s unstable countries, this connection is very fragile and as a result children often find themselves thrown into a world of poverty and unemployment where education has no value. A consistent cycle of poverty leads to one course for its children that appears to offer economic protection and that course is that of armed involvement. As poverty increases in third-world countries the connection between education and employment is rapidly eroding and tragically a child coming to the conclusion that education is not very important in their lives. Singer (2001, p. 45) attributes the expansion of child soldiers to the proliferation of light weapons. â€Å"Rarely mentioned in analyses of world threats, which typically focus on the most complex and expensive systems, light weapons (rifles, grenades, light machine guns, land mines, and other â€Å"child-portable† systems) are the weapons most often used in contemporary warfare and produce 80 to 90 percent of all the casualties. Technological and efficiency advances in these weapons permit the transformation of children into lethal fighters†. After the Cold War there were enormous amounts of small arms in surplus throughout the world. Until recently, the weight and technicality of small arms precluded the employment of children in front-line positions. The proliferation of simple, light arms such as the M16 and AK-47 assault rifles has meant that they are now easily handled and carried by the child. This is due in part to lighter weight, less moving parts, which allows for easy stripping and reassembly even for a child under the age of 10 (Faulkner, 2001). A final contributing factor discussed in this essay is that of ‘displacement’. Children that are separated from a family due to a variety of different reasons will not have any reference for guidance, support or education. These children’s displacement may be the result of past wars that have created a generation of orphans as well as other children that are dislocated. Often these times is when children may identify with an armed group and possibly even volunteer their services to an armed group. However many children most likely initially move to either live on the streets in urban areas or possibly be able to access an orphanage for protection and shelter, although many will end up in refugee camps for displaced peoples. It is from these places of ‘safety’ that these special risk groups are often forcibly recruited and as they are especially vulnerable and feel defenseless they will usually come to acceptance of promises that a powerful armed group will also provide them with protection, shelter, food, and other basics of survival (Save the Children Federation, 2001). International Law Children’s Rights The international community has implemented laws that ban the recruitment and use of child soldiers in conflict. This legal and policy network is comprised of numerous laws developed by many international institutions and have been ratified by many governments. The following lists some organizations that have established many of the laws we see today that prohibit the use of child soldiers in conflict and also some of the major conventions (Hughes, 2000). The League of Nations (1924 Declaration for the Rights of the Child). The UN Security Council – numerous resolutions. The International Labor Organisation – Child labour conventions. The Geneva Conventions were adopted in 1949. The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child – 2002. Although some of these laws may be imperfect, legal protections now exist and are increasing to protect children from being drawn into military service. Where governments such as seen in Africa are not democracies and therefore may not be accountable to their citizens, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and International institutions represent the best possible sources of change because they function outside of the state bureaucracy. In some of Africa’s states that are experiencing conflict they may be either unable / unwilling, to protect children’s rights. NGOs have shown success in drawing attention to the problems facing children and in affording services and resources to help them. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has also been fervently promoted by NGOs which has resulted in many countries ratifying the convention (Cahn, 2005). While conventions and laws are importantly necessary to address child soldier recruitment defiance of them needs to be correctly scrutinised, reported and the perpetrators held accountable before tribunals or other bodies such as the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration The ‘gun’ gave a sense of power that was not there prior to becoming a child soldier and was most likely used against a child’s own community. This raises two issues, firstly how do these children lose this sense of power and secondly how do the children reintegrate into communities they may very well have alienated? One thing that is obvious it that the process will be long and difficult in many cases and will require feasible and special programs to achieve rehabilitation and reintegration (Zack-Williams, 2001). When children can be induced into formal disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration programmes, there are many factors to address. Firstly the number of soldiers reporting for disarmament and demobilisation need to be counted, their weapons surrendered and consideration given to what communities or other destinations they choose to relocate to. The ideology of violence needs to be addressed by imposing alternative values and non-violent means of confl ict resolution. The following points Malan (2000) demonstrates what needs may need addressing when child soldiers are being demobilised: †¢ Nutrition †¢ Medical treatment (including STD’s and drug abuse) †¢ Respect and self-esteem †¢ Human dignity and confidentiality †¢ Consultation and participation in determining their fates †¢ Reintegration packages and benefits †¢ Community sensitisation in advance of family reintegration †¢ Amnesty from prosecution, protection from retribution for acts committed †¢ Protection from repeat recruitment †¢ Mental ‘disarmament’; †¢ Education, peace education and vocational training †¢ Employment creation. Given the number of needs as shown above there would obviously need to be a huge commitment on the part of all parties involved (not just the NGO’s) to have any hope of achieving a beneficial outcome. Furthermore when considering the above needs it does highlight how much damage child soldier’s recruitment can do to the child. This awareness should encourage further urgent work by all concerned to address the causative factors such as abject poverty which is at the root of the whole child soldier process. Conclusion The entire child soldier phenomenon is a poignant process where children are being deprived of their childhood, denied an education and blocked from actively participating in their chosen culture. As a matter of urgency the underlying abject poverty that is a catalyst for children’s involvement in conflict and war, must be addressed by good governance, social policy and targeted aid / assistance by NGO’s and international bodies such as the UN. Priorities to assist in achieving a reduction in poverty in countries where hostilities have ceased should include the following. Improvements that allow ‘secure’ private sector activity, strengthening the public sector / quality of governance, increasing investment in infrastructure, the creation of service delivery in human development and the creation of a social safety net. Furthermore increased work must be done to not only create laws that prohibit the use of child soldiers in Africa, but to actively prosecute those responsible and apply appropriate penalties as a deterrent to others. Given the large number of needs shown to rehabilitate child soldiers and the subsequent investment in time and money; a serious commitment will have to made by those involved to provide the best chance for the child to attain some ‘normality’ of life and to not see the child return to armed conflict. Reference List Baylis, J Smith, S 1999, The Globalization of World politics – An Introduction to International Relations, Oxford University Press, New York. Cahn, N 2005, ‘Poor Children: Child â€Å"Witches† and Child Soldiers in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Public Law and Legal Theory Paper No. 177, The George Washington University law School. Faulkner, F 2001, Kindergarten killers: morality, murder and the child soldier problem, Third World Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 491–504. Honwana, A 2002, Negotiating Post-war Identities: Child Soldiers in Mozambique and Angola, in Bond, G and Gibson, N (ed) 2002. Contested Terrains and Constructed Categories. Colorado: Westview Press, p. 3. Hope Sr. K.R 2005, Child survival, poverty, and labor in Africa, Journal of Children and Poverty, vol.11, no. 1, pp. 19 — 42. Hughes, L 2000, Can International Law Protect Child Soldiers?, Peace Review, vol.12, no. 3, pp. 399 — 405. Malan, M 2000, ‘Disarming and demobilising child soldiers: The underlying challenges’, African Security Review, vol. 9, no. 5/6. Save the Children Federation 2001, Child Soldiers Care Protection of Children in Emergencies, Save the Children Federation, accessed 20 May 2008, Singer PW, 2001, ‘Caution: Children at War’, Parameters, vol.31, no. 4, winter 2001/2002, p. 40. UNICEF 1997, Cape Town principles and best Practices, UNICEF, accessed 23 May 2008, . Zack-Williams, AB, 2001 Child soldiers in the civil war in Sierra Leone, Review of African Political Economy, vol. 28, no. 87, pp. 73 — 82.

Essay --

Now that we have demonstrated the Gothic influence on the Brontes’ writings , now that we have identified the interest the Brontes had in the Gothic, it seems logical to assume then that the vampire motif has been exploited not only in Emily and Charlotte Brontes’ works, it is also exploited by Anne Bronte throughout her second work The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. The creation of traditional supernatural vampires has no rhyme or reason. It has been like the galloping horse with no horse rider to control the race. Nineteenth century vampires of Gothic literature, by contrast, are literary tools serving some particular purpose. Carol A. Senf in her book The Vampire in Nineteenth Century English Literature stresses the fact that nineteenth century writers make use of the vampire as a social metaphor in realistic fiction. She writes thus:†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Polidori†¦does provide however the merest suggestion of the ways that writers, such as the Brontes and George Eliot, will use the vampire as a social metaphor when he gives the reader brief glimpses of a corrupt society where the wealthy, plagued by ennui, seek to alleviate their boredom by flirting with vice† (Senf: 39). Thus in the case of the vampire motif in a nineteenth century Gothic novel entitled The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Anne uses Gothic metaphors rather than photographic descriptions to reveal the social horrors of her time. It appears now that Anne Bronte uses much the same narrative strategy as her sisters Charlotte Bronte and Emily Bronte. Like Charlotte and Emily, Anne Bronte diminishes the vampire’s mythic power and focuses on the sorts of cruelties her human characters display to destroy the lives of others. For instance, through the vampire motif Anne diverts her readers’ atten... ...uding the â€Å"New Woman† of the 1890s. That’s why the blood-sucking aspect of vampires is gradually being diluted by nineteenth century writers. It seems clear therefore, that Anne Bronte, through her outstanding work of art, joins Oscar Wilde’s view that any narrative strategy should be employed solely for unveiling the poor conditions of the time and not for gratifying a bourgeois taste of some kind. In his 1891 essay "The Soul of Man Under Socialism", Oscar Wilde stresses the fact that any artistic piece of work must be a product of the artist’s creative process. A work of art must have one supreme goal; representing what others need and not what others desire to see. This is exactly what constitutes a given artistic greatness, according to Wilde. Indeed, Only when the artist ceases to suit others’ desires, that he comes to be regarded a true artist.(witcombe.sbc.)

Assignments Essay

Choose one scientist involved in formulating the modern periodic table and describe why their work made a significant contribution to the development of the periodic table. Dmitri Mendeleev’s contribution to the modern day periodic table is widely renowned in the history of chemical science. Mendeleev was the creator of the periodic table; arranging 63 known elements in order of their atomic mass. His discovery made a significant impact in the development of the periodic table as it set the foundation for further progress to occur in the future. Dmitri Mendeleev anticipated the existence of new elements to be discovered, therefore leaving gaps in the ascending order of elements. Mendeleev was the notable discoverer of isotopes and rare gasses. In summary, science is a blend of logic and imagination and Mendeleev demonstrated these attributes through developing the periodic table (Western Oregon University, 2012). Dmitri Mendeleev’s creation of the periodic table was considered one of the greatest triumphs in chemistry history as it allowed for further exploration to begin. Why do you think the development of the periodic table required input from a range of different people? As many are aware, the development of the periodic table required numerous scientists such as John Newlands and Julius Lothar Mieyer. If not for these men, Mendeleev’s table would not be as accurate as it is today. As time progressed, technology advanced scientists’ discovered noble gasses and determined each elements atomic number. Many scientists played a vital role in developing our modern day periodic table as each person had a different knowledge and understanding of chemistry. To conclude, the periodic table was never one man’s discovery, but the result of numerous scientists’ explorations and experimentations. Each played a vital part in challenging/confirming the theories of their predecessors, recognising different patterns and properties between different elements. How did improvements in technology influence the development of the periodic table? With the improvement in technology from the 1800’s through to present day the development of the periodic table has undergone significant changes. Since the development of the table by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, scientists have utilised new technologies to produce a more accurate representation of the chemical elements. Scientists such as William Ramsay, who discovered noble gasses, drastically changed the periodic table adding a whole new group. In 1913, Henry Mosely significantly affected the periodic table with his discovery of nuclear charge. Ultimately, the most technological change is attributed to Glen Seaborg in 1940. His work on the discovery of atomic number reconfigured the periodic table, awarding him the noble prize in chemistry in 1951. Without technological advancements such as nuclear reactors, telescope and the chemical bonds system (Alexander Crum Brow)). Seaborg possibly would not have been able to discover what he did. In summary, the advancement in technology has importantly altered Mendeleev’s original periodic table and will most likely continue with new synthetic elements being added. Briefly describe information we now have about atoms that was not available to earlier scientists who were identifying patterns and trends within early versions of the periodic table. What trends could they see, compared to what we now know? In the 20th Century, scientists have a greater understanding of atoms and the patterns they follow compared to those who invented the early versions of the periodic table. It was noted in the early 1800’s, that matter consisted of lumpy particles called atoms. Towards the end of the century, J. J Thompson discovered electrons and their negative charge. He hypothesised that atoms would therefore contain positive charged particles. In 1869, scientists began to recognised patterns in properties originating from a number of known elements, eventually developing the classification methods. During the early versions of the periodic table, it was determined by Henry Mosely to arrange elements in order of their atomic number. This pattern followed the periodic table concept more accurately than the arrangement of atomic weight. Another notable trend originated from glen Seaborg in the 1940’s. Seaborg artificially produced new heavy mass elements such as neptunium and plutonium. Thus creating a new block in the table called ‘antinides’. To conclude our knowledge of atoms, their structure and patterns they form in the periodic table originating from the 18th century has developed. Essay Part This essay will provide a clear insight into the element of chlorine. It will include detail on the history of chlorine, its’ structure, position on the periodic table and the ions formed. The element of Chlorine was discovered quite early compared to many other elements. Carl Wilhelm Scheele first produced the element in 1774 in Sweden. Scheele came across this element after combining the mineral pyrolusite and hydrochloric acid together. He discovered that this new gas reacted with metals, dissolved slightly in water and bleached flowers and leaves. At first, Scheele believed that the gas produced was oxygen, however Sir Humphry Davy proved in 1810 that this gas was new. Sir Davy then went on to name the new substance Chlorine after the Greek word (Chloros) meaning greenish yellow. Chlorine’s element structure is similar to other elements that are situated in the halogens group on the periodic table. This element comprises an atomic number of 17 and weight of 35. 5. Chlorine is known to be an extremely reactive gas therefore providing reasons as to why it directly combines with the majority of other elements except for the noble gasses. This element is arranged into three shells. The first two shells are filled with electrons. Meanwhile the third contains only seven electrons. Chlorine is a naturally occurring element, arising in the Earth’s crust and seawater. It’s abundance in the Earth is about 100-300 parts per million (Chemistry Explained, 2013). This element is considerably well known to be a dense gas, containing a density rating of 3. 21g per litre. Chlorine is quite a strong oxidizing agent. In other words, it is notorious for taking on electrons from other substances. Nevertheless, the element chlorine’s specific element structure dictates as to why it is positioned within the halogens group. Chlorine has been specifically positioned within the periodic table situated in group 17 because it belongs to the halogens family. It is known to be the second lightest element in the halogens group. Chlorine is situated in this group because it contains similar chemical properties to other halogen family members. Some chemical and physical properties of these elements are; that are very reactive, they contain seven valence electrons, they are poor conductors and they are brittle when solid. Chlorine has a melting point of -100. 98Â °Cand a boiling point of -34. Â °C. Chlorine is heavier than air and proved very effective as a chemical weapon in the trenches and fox holes dug in World War One. Chlorine has been specifically positioned towards the top end of the halogens as it holds a notably low atomic number compared to other elements that are also a part of the same group. In summary, Mendeleev and Seaborg essentially position chlorine within the halogens group due to its similar characteristics. The elements included in the halogens group are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). Fluorine and chlorine, both have seven valence electrons in their outer shell. That seven-electron trait applies to all of the halogens. They are all just one electron shy of having full shells. The halogens have the trait of combining with many different elements. They are very reactive. You will often find them bonding with metals and elements from Group One of the periodic table. Fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens and reactivity decreases as you move down the column. Therefore, Chlorine is the second most reactive. As the atomic number increases, the atoms get bigger. Their chemical properties change just a small amount when compared to the element right above them on the table. Chlorine forms a negative ion by reason of a greater amount of electrons than protons. This atom has 17 protons and electrons. Due to the last unfilled electron shell, this element transforms into a negative ion. In simpler terms, a negative ion contains one more electron than proton. In scientific language, a negative ion is otherwise known as an anion. Chlorine is converted into an ion once gaining an extra electron from a different element. This process is essential for creating an ionic bond. Chlorine’s ion is known to be extremely soluble in water, thus giving reasons as to why it bonds with sodium, forming sodium chloride. The ionic bond that forms is measured in terms of valence, meaning how much an element wants to bond with another element. To summarise, chlorine and sodium are a direct example of an ionic bond that forms when two ions chemically attach together. The uses of chlorine in everyday life are vast and continue to be used world-wide specifically for maintaining a clean swimming pool environment and many uses as a cleaning agent.

Non-reactive Techniques, Observation, and Experimentation

In research, the question, hypothesis, research design, data collection strategy, and data analysis procedures are rooted in previous literatures and identified before the project begins. Any changes in the proposed design while carrying out the research would be seen as weakening the validity of the research finding and, well, just bad research practice. An explanatory, also called classical experimental, design is seen as the most robust, since it follows procedures that meet the criteria for proving causality.It identifies independent and dependent variable, required random assignment of research subjects to experimental and a control group so that both groups are the same, describes procedures for manipulation of the dependent variable(s), and requires development of pretest and posttest instruments and time frames. If this design is implemented then threats to internal validity (proving causality) are removed.Descriptive designs address correlational relationships between indepe ndent and dependent variables, usually through large-scale surveys. Samples are preferably random (representative of the population being studied); however, these samples are not manipulated into control and experimental groups but are surveyed in their own settings using valid and reliable data collection instruments developed in advance of data collection. Such designs do not address threats to internal validity, but they are considered to have stronger external validity (generalizability of findings from the sample to the population of interest) than the explanatory design (Morris, 2006).The â€Å"Classical† Experimental DesignAll experimental designs are variations on the basic classical experimental design, which consists of two groups, an experimental and a control group, and two variables, an independent and a dependent variable. Units to be analyzed (e.g., subjects) are randomly assigned to each of the experimental and control groups. Units in the experimental group r eceive the independent variable (the treatment condition) that the investigator has manipulated. Contributors in the control group do not obtain the independent variable handling. Pretest and Posttest measures are taken on the independent variable(s), and the control group participants are measures at the same time as the experimental group, although no planned change or manipulation has taken place with regard to the independent variable in the control group.Researchers often use this design when they are interested in assessing change from the pretest to the posttest, as a result of a treatment or intervention. This design is also known as â€Å"pretest-posttest† or â€Å"before-after† design, to differentiate it from a posttest-only design in which one group receives a treatment, whereas the other group receives no treatment and serves as a control.The key difference in the posttest-only design is that neither group is pretested, nor only at the end of the study are both groups measured on the dependent variable. Some researchers favor this latter design over the classic two-group pre- and posttest approach because they are concerned that the pretest measures will sensitize participants or that a learning effect might take place that influences individuals’ performance on the posttest (Babbie, 2005).Ascertaining Causality between VariablesResearchers challenge to establish cause-and-effect associations linking independent and dependent variables by experimental studies.An experiment characterizes a set of processes to decide the fundamental nature of the causal association linking independent and dependent variables. â€Å"Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes experimentation†(Maxfield & Babbie, 2004). Sometimes, the experiment appraises the outcome of arrangements of independent variable comparative to one or more dependent variables. Not co nsidering the quantity of variables considered, and experiment’s crucial purpose challenges to methodically segregate the result of at least one independent variable connected to at least one dependent variable. Simply when this occurs can one choose which variable(s) truly clarifies the happening (Morris, 2006).To conclude causality, science necessitates that an alteration in the X-variable (independent, influenced variable) go before an adjustment in the Y-variable (dependent, variable predictable for change), with suitable deliberation for scheming other variables that may in reality root the relationship. Perceptive in causal aspects in associations among variables improves one’s perception about experimental data.Controlling all potential factors that influence those effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) requires considerable effort, knowledge about the main factors, and creativity (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, & Liao, 2004).ConclusionIn other words, the fact that a dependent variable and an independent variable are strongly associated cannot always be extended to a logical conclusion that it is the value of the independent variable that is causing the value of the dependent variable to be whatever it is.To achieve causality between variables, one must conduct an experimental study about these variables. Oftentimes, investigational outcome are not constant as they come out. Even though field studies supply purpose insight about probable causes for experiential phenomena, the need of full power innate in such study confines capability to deduce causality. Because neither dynamic treatment of the independent variable by the experimenter nor manage over probable overriding factors happen, no assurance survives that any experiential disparity in the dependent variable essentially resulted from difference in the independent variable (Maxfield & Babbie, 2004).References:Babbie, E. R. (2005). The Basics of Social Research. Belm ont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Lewis-Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., & Liao, T. F. (2004). The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. New York: SAGE.Maxfield, M. G., & Babbie, E. R. (2004). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Morris, T. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Four Alternative Paradigms. New York: SAGE. Non-reactive techniques, observation, and experimentation In research, the question, hypothesis, research design, data collection strategy, and data analysis procedures are rooted in previous literatures and identified before the project begins. Any changes in the proposed design while carrying out the research would be seen as weakening the validity of the research finding and, well, just bad research practice. An explanatory, also called classical experimental, design is seen as the most robust, since it follows procedures that meet the criteria for proving causality. It identifies independent and dependent variable, required random assignment of research subjects to experimental and a control group so that both groups are the same, describes procedures for manipulation of the dependent variable(s), and requires development of pretest and posttest instruments and time frames. If this design is implemented then threats to internal validity (proving causality) are removed.Descriptive designs address correlational relationships between indep endent and dependent variables, usually through large-scale surveys. Samples are preferably random (representative of the population being studied); however, these samples are not manipulated into control and experimental groups but are surveyed in their own settings using valid and reliable data collection instruments developed in advance of data collection. Such designs do not address threats to internal validity, but they are considered to have stronger external validity (generalizability of findings from the sample to the population of interest) than the explanatory design (Morris, 2006).The â€Å"Classical† Experimental DesignAll experimental designs are variations on the basic classical experimental design, which consists of two groups, an experimental and a control group, and two variables, an independent and a dependent variable. Units to be analyzed (e.g., subjects) are randomly assigned to each of the experimental and control groups. Units in the experimental group receive the independent variable (the treatment condition) that the investigator has manipulated. Contributors in the control group do not obtain the independent variable handling. Pretest and Posttest measures are taken on the independent variable(s), and the control group participants are measures at the same time as the experimental group, although no planned change or manipulation has taken place with regard to the independent variable in the control group.Researchers often use this design when they are interested in assessing change from the pretest to the posttest, as a result of a treatment or intervention. This design is also known as â€Å"pretest-posttest† or â€Å"before-after† design, to differentiate it from a posttest-only design in which one group receives a treatment, whereas the other group receives no treatment and serves as a control. The key difference in the posttest-only design is that neither group is pretested, nor only at the end of the study a re both groups measured on the dependent variable. Some researchers favor this latter design over the classic two-group pre- and posttest approach because they are concerned that the pretest measures will sensitize participants or that a learning effect might take place that influences individuals’ performance on the posttest (Babbie, 2005).Ascertaining Causality between VariablesResearchers challenge to establish cause-and-effect associations linking independent and dependent variables by experimental studies.An experiment characterizes a set of processes to decide the fundamental nature of the causal association linking independent and dependent variables. â€Å"Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes experimentation†(Maxfield & Babbie, 2004). Sometimes, the experiment appraises the outcome of arrangements of independent variable comparative to one or more dependent variables. Not considering the quantity of variables considered, and experiment’s crucial purpose challenges to methodically segregate the result of at least one independent variable connected to at least one dependent variable. Simply when this occurs can one choose which variable(s) truly clarifies the happening (Morris, 2006).To conclude causality, science necessitates that an alteration in the X-variable (independent, influenced variable) go before an adjustment in the Y-variable (dependent, variable predictable for change), with suitable deliberation for scheming other variables that may in reality root the relationship. Perceptive in causal aspects in associations among variables improves one’s perception about experimental data.Controlling all potential factors that influence those effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) requires considerable effort, knowledge about the main factors, and creativity (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, & Liao, 2004).ConclusionIn oth er words, the fact that a dependent variable and an independent variable are strongly associated cannot always be extended to a logical conclusion that it is the value of the independent variable that is causing the value of the dependent variable to be whatever it is.To achieve causality between variables, one must conduct an experimental study about these variables. Oftentimes, investigational outcome are not constant as they come out. Even though field studies supply purpose insight about probable causes for experiential phenomena, the need of full power innate in such study confines capability to deduce causality. Because neither dynamic treatment of the independent variable by the experimenter nor manage over probable overriding factors happen, no assurance survives that any experiential disparity in the dependent variable essentially resulted from difference in the independent variable (Maxfield & Babbie, 2004).References:Babbie, E. R. (2005). The Basics of Social Research. Be lmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Lewis-Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., & Liao, T. F. (2004). The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. New York: SAGE.Maxfield, M. G., & Babbie, E. R. (2004). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Morris, T. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Four Alternative Paradigms. New York: SAGE.